Boston Artwork Essay

The public artworks that I chose are Asaroton 1976 (Unswept Floor) and Boston’s Famed Rainbow Tank. The similarities of these artworks are that they are both available in public view and that they are unique types of artwork. There is not much like the Rainbow Tank or the Asaroton ’76 types, as they were original ideas of the artists. Considering the effect that they have on people, both artworks seem to blend in the everyday life of those who see it in a regular basis. The Asaroton is being walked around and stepped around, while the Rainbow Tank contains liquefied natural gas. It’s as if the artwork has naturally been there, a part of everyone’s ordinary lives despite the fact they are extraordinary creations (Millis, 1997). The Asaroton ’76 is an artwork like no other, as it is composed of bronze replicas of everyday waste and debris of the market, which is then embedded in concrete. At first glance, the artwork just seems to be a deformity or an abnormality in the road (Harries/Heder Public Art, 2006). But if you look at it closely, you will see the intricate details and designs embossed on the concrete walkway. In relation to this, it is situated in a segment of the street which forms a major crosswalk. Many people pass it or walk over it everyday, but they don’t seem to mind. To them, the artwork is already a part of their everyday lives. Boston’s Famed Rainbow Tank is actually a gigantic tank of liquefied natural gas which was painted with five huge swaths of color, artistically placed as though they’re just strokes of a paintbrush (NPR, 2001). The colors are yellow, orange, blue, vermillion, and purple. With the way the tank is painted, it’s as if it was just a large canvas for an abstract artwork. The stripes actually doesn’t resemble anything, but according to those who gaze at this gigantic work of art, they see faces of prominent personalities, whether they’re our friends or foes (images of Ho Chi Minh, Fred Flintstone, Saddam Hussein). The Asaroton ’76 is situated in the busy, open air produce market on Blackstone Street. The place it is embedded is a part of a major crosswalk, so you can just imagine how many people walk over it or pass it during the course of the day. Heavy motor traffic is also present during the day, so we can say that this artwork is not something that we keep in museums or galleries, as it is best appreciated in public. Boston’s Rainbow Tank is situated somewhere along Boston’s waterfront, the industrial part of the area. The rainbow tank is such a massive structure that many people can see it without having to get close to it. There were restaurants just around the area, and the rainbow tank has been a common view for the urban dwellers. The tank holds a good spot in everyone’s heart, as it was made originally as a sign of peace, and now it remains a masterpiece unique from any other artworks. The effectiveness of Asaroton ’76 in conveying an artistic message is incomparable, as it artfully depicts some of the common things that we see everyday. It immortalizes the debris of everyday life, which seem to reflect back to us, how we oftentimes don’t recognize these stuff as artistic or as anything valuable. With the Asaroton, we are able to see how these things, no matter what they are, can be a very good subject for a wonderful work of art. It’s main difference with the Rainbow Tank is obviously the size, and also the feeling it conveys, as it serves as a reminder of the things we usually neglect or ignore, as for the Rainbow Tank, it is a sign of peace, that’s why it conveys a feeling of happiness to the viewers. The Rainbow Tank is effective in its purpose of spreading peace, as it conveys a feeling of peacefulness and childish joy, despite the size of the structure. People who look at it tend to smile, even without a reason. Its mere presence in the area brings and assurance of peace for the people, though in reality, it could easily be a target of terrorism, with all the natural gas it contains. References: Harries/Heder Public Art. (2006). Asaroton 1976 (Unswept Floor). Retrieved June 9, 2008, from http://www. harriesheder. com/asaroton. htm Millis, C. (1997). An opinionated, irreverent look at Boston’s public art. Retrieved June 9, 2008, from http://www. bostonphoenix. com/archive/art/97/08/21/PUBLIC_ART. html NPR. (2001). Boston’s Famed Rainbow Tank Inspires Admiration, Scorn. Retrieved June 9, 2008, from http://www. npr. org/news/specials/response/home_front/features/2001/nov/rainbowtank/011105. rainbowtank. html

Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare Essay

â€Å"I am always directed by you† – Mariana â€Å"I am directed by you† – Isabella. Both these lines are addressed to the Duke. What do they suggest about women status in this play? What other evidence can you find to support your view? Measure for Measure is a play written by William Shakespeare in the seventeenth century which crucially presents the role of women. Women were viewed as pure and were not expected to be promiscuous, but dependent on men with few options or choices. Shakespeare’s interpretation of women in Measure for Measure very much reflects society’s opinion of women at the time, where men had more freedom and should be given more respect than women. The society at that time was a patriarchal one, where a male was a considered a God like figure and ultimately the leader, and below him was the king and then the nobles. However, although the society gave men more rights than women, Measure for Measure demonstrates that men also had more responsibilities. This is shown through the situation with Claudio and Juliet, as although they are both equally to blame for Juliet’s pregnancy, it is Claudio facing the death penalty. The women of Measure for Measure are generally quite low in the ranks of importance and respect; they are not spoken of with any importance. Juliet is the object of Claudio’s sexual release and Mariana is the long lost forgotten fiancee of Angelo, who was abandoned by him when she lost her dowry in a shipwreck. The only woman who kind of breaks the trend of the lowly women is Isabella, who has the courage to stand up to Angelo for her chastity. In the first half she is pushed between Angelo and Claudio while she decides what to do and refuses to respond Angelo’s advances, then in the second half, she takes her orders from the Duke which shows that on the other hand she is still obedient toward the Duke, following all of his instructions. In Act V, Scene 1, the Duke shows his opinion of women when talking to Mariana, he says: â€Å"Why, you are nothing then: neither maid, widow nor wife†. According to the Duke’s point of view, the other woman who truly is free is Mistress Overdone as she earns her own money and is able to get some freedom; at least she doesn’t have to stay at home cooking. The main female character in Measure for Measure is Isabella; she represents a very pure female character. This is first seen at the start of the play by the fact that she is training to become a nun and by the strong Christian values she appears to have. This is then emphasized later when she is told her brother’s life will be saved if  she agrees to sleep with Angelo. She refuses this offer, placing her chastity and her Christian values above her own life. This illustrates that a woman’s purity is highly valued, while a woman being promiscuous is not accepted. Mariana is another female character in the play and she is quite different to Isabella. None of these three men, Angelo, Claudio or the Duke, seem to think that her CHOICE matters- her body is to be bargained for whether for lust, life or love. When the duke asks Mariana to allow him a private discussion with Isabella, she replies, â€Å"I am always bound to you†, as if she is speaking to an old friend. And again, when the duke tells her he respects her, she answers that she knows it and has found it to be true, suggesting a long-term relationship. This statement also shows that she is his subject. The adjective ‘bound’ means that she is obliged to do as he wishes and also compelled to do so. She uses the adverb ‘always’ to him which shows that she will always follow his example and will do his will in any condition. Her absolute trust is manifested when she agrees to entrust her chastity as the Friar asks. In the Jacobean society Shakespeare lived in, women would have always done as they were bid by order of men, but especially if the order was given by a man of religion. These words show the absolute compliance that the Duke is able to gain through becoming a disguise (pseudo-)friar. The Duke abuses this religious power to gain insight into people’s souls for his own ends. He knows that Angelo wishes Isabella to ‘give up the treasures’ of her body and uses the two women to gain more power over Angelo. The same applies to when Isabella says to the Duke, â€Å"I am directed by you†, this statement also shows how women respected men and how men were above in authority. As mentioned above, there are no independent women in Measure for Measure, this is not strange, considering the setting and Shakespeare’s own era; there are prostitutes and nuns who are given no chance to control their own lives most of all they seem to have no choice in any matter.

Journalism Code of Ethics

Thousands of journalists all over world voluntarily embrace the journalist code of ethics as a critical set of values and guidelines required to be a professional and morally upright journalist. The Society of Journalists (SPJ) says that â€Å"the code is not intended as a set of ‘rules’ but as a resource for ethical decision making†. Because it is not legally enforced, it is up to the integrity of the journalist to uphold the code of ethics. It is not possible to ensure that all journalists abide by the code of ethics.There will be some, who could not stand by their codes, values and integrity when they are in the face of economic and social pressures, and choose to tread the grey areas instead. People do not become bad journalists in a day. It’s a slow fade when black and white is turned to grey. We must be very careful not to give ourselves away to unethical acts, and disregard our morals in order to get a good story or some physical rewards. In Singapor e, we are blessed to have good, ethical journalists, who present very transparent news.The same cannot be said for many journalists in other parts of the world. Breslin’s (1997) study found the following: In Japan, journalists voluntarily and regularly curtail their truth-telling through the practice of self-censorship — not from coercion by the government, but by their own press organizations that cover government. In the People's Republic of China, journalists — like all essential workers — are in the employ of government and pay homage to the truth, but place a lower value on pursuing with any aggressiveness or perseverance.In Korea, journalists most often recognize truth as the word of government, and identify themselves with the elite ruling forces and identify their role as helping to ensure harmony between the rulers and the ruled. Their closeness to government is often measured by the amount of cash in the â€Å"white envelopes† they receiv e from their sources. Journalists cannot live in the clouds, doing what they think is right without pressures being put on them. Often, journalists face pressure from a variety of sources, all trying to make the journalist behave in a way which is not the way the journalist would choose.Journalists are imperfect and fallible. But we must attempt to resist the pressures and take a stand. As such, it is important to review the current journalism code of ethics, and find out whether it is still relevant and sufficient. Indeed, the code of ethics should reflect values, challenges and realities of journalism. However, â€Å"too many of them are mostly lists of do’s and don’ts (usually more don’ts), rather than helpful guides to making ethical decisions in situations that aren’t as simple as the policies sometimes make them† (Buttry, 2010).Also, with much of the articles and stories done on digital social platforms, the current journalism code of ethics is lacking guidelines on the use of social media. The journalism code of ethics attempts to direct journalists from difficult situations but as the saying goes; it is easier said than done. The scenarios portrayed are too vague and unrealistic. A journalist may find himself in various situations where the code of ethics fails to address. As such, the code of ethics is insufficient. I would recommend an update on the code of ethics with new rules to become more applicable to modern day journalism.When using social media as a platform for a story, be aware of the group who might be misrepresented because they do not use social media as often. For the section headlined protecting sources of information; if a journalist assures a source that he would keep the informant’s identity a secret, he must keep his word under all circumstances. I would like to add, do not publish critical opinions from people seeking confidentiality. The motives of sources should always be questioned. Peo ple who wish to express personal opinions in the media should always stand behind their opinion. Objectivity and fairness.A journalist must always be objective when he writes a story. I would like to add, keep an open mind to all views, even views that we are uncomfortable with. It is in reality, harder to write objectively if the subject interest or disgust us. Suppose men like Hitler and Osama bin laden whom many consider to be evil, are still living among us today. And suppose an update comes in and says that Hitler is now confirmed dead! Or Osama bin laden successfully unleashed another major terror act upon innocent citizens. And yet, the journalist must refrain from cheering or groaning in disgust and report fairly.Also, journalists should be fair to all sources. Official and unofficial sources can both be of equal validity. The line between economic pressure and doing a favor can be rather thin at times. The same scenario stated in the study guide; if you work for a small-tim e newspaper, which is in financial difficulties, you might be asked by an advertiser to write an article in favor of a particular product, company or even a person in return for buying advertising space in your newspaper. It will be against the integrity of the journalist to praise said product, company or person if he does not believe in them.He would be yielding to economic pressure if he complies. However, if the same journalist deems the product, company or person to be acceptable to him and the public and thus agrees to do the advertiser the favor, is it still against journalistic ethics? As such, I would propose a new rule; a journalist while in full knowledge that the product, company or person is of little or no benefit to the public, must never promote or write favorably about that product, company or person, to be better than it is. Acceptance of gifts is prohibited. A journalist should not demand payment in cash or in kind for journalistic work.And he cannot accept them e ither, even if they come without demand. This is necessary to ensure fairness and credibility. However, the code of ethics offers no guide regarding how a journalist should donate to support a cause or a political group. A journalist is still a person with rights, and his job does not make him any less of a citizen of a democratic society. Referring to the controversial issue where Keith Olbermann donated $7200 of his own money to three candidates running for public office. The incident resulted in the dismissal of Keith Olbermann from MSNBC.Greener (2010), posted: â€Å"Who among us needs to get their employer's permission before making an open and legal political donation? † The code of ethics does not address how journalists may give, only on what we can or cannot receive. It is understandable, that the very nature of the job views any donations by a journalist to be a bias towards the organization. Thus the need for more transparency. I would propose a new rule: A journal ist may contribute freely to any charitable cause, as long as he does it openly and state the details on any articles related to the topic.What should a journalist do if he were to start a personal blog? In this new digital age, the code of ethics is not sufficient in covering the area of digital social media. Do the same rules apply as if the journalist was writing for an official paper? Can he have freedom of speech in his personal blog? Or is he still held accountable for every word. This new rule should be introduced: A journalist may post freely on his personal blog. But due to the nature of his job, he should not comment on any topics he discussed on his official medium, so that he does not compromise his professional integrity.A journalist should be responsible for whatever he writes. The purpose of reporting objectively and fairly is to ensure as little people as possible get hurt or affected by what we write. Even so, it is inevitable that people can get offended sometimes. So, a journalist must admit mistakes and correct them publicly. Print is not the only platform for journalists. Other mediums include photography, video, graphic art designs, audio etc. Due to the different methods of communication, more rules and guidelines are required.A lack of skill or knowledge about different media should not be an excuse for a lapse in ethics. In conclusion, a journalist is held accountable to his own integrity and morals. The journalism code of ethics is merely a guideline, for journalist to consider when they bump into situations in their professional work. Journalism is not as simple a job as what the general public thinks. Much is required of a journalist; commitment, responsibility, compassion, an inquisitive mind. These are merely the beginning of the many attributes a good journalist requires.Of course, one cannot become a good journalist overnight. A professional journalist is built on confidence acquired through experience, by overcoming obstacles a nd holding onto ethics. References Brislin, T. (March 6-8, 1994). An update on journalism ethics in Asia: Values and practices as context for meaning in Japan, China and Korea. In Jounalism Ethics in Asia. Retrieved November 19, 2012, from http://www2. hawaii. edu/~tbrislin/asiaeth. html. Buttry, S. (November 7, 2010). Journalist's code of ethics: time for an update?.In The Buttry Diary. Retrieved November 19, 2012, from http://stevebuttry. wordpress. com/2010/11/07/journalists-code-of-ethics-time-for-an-update/. Greener, R. (November 5, 2010). Keith Olbermann suspended by MSNBC: Like ‘Louie† – I'm shocked! . In The Huffington Post. Retrieved November 19, 2012, from http://www. huffingtonpost. com/richard-greener/keith-olbermann-suspended_b_779736. html. SPJ Code of ethics. (1996-2012). In Society of Professional Journalists. Retrieved November 19, 2012, from http://www. spj. org/ethicscode. asp.

Reflecting on what Amal tells us, discuss the ways in which Map of Essay

Reflecting on what Amal tells us, discuss the ways in which Map of Love comments on the following common assumptions about gender relations - Essay Example Some things have not changed, and this is evident in the gender roles that are discussed in the context of both British and Egyptian society. The Map of Love is a story of love written by a woman, as only a woman could tell it. Never lacking in emotion or intrigue, the book shows that history can repeat itself in strange ways. It is the story of two tales of love, about a century apart. Going back to 1901, we see that Anna Winterbourne has been recently widowed and is strangely attracted to an Egyptian nationalist by the name of Sharif Pasha Al-Barudi. At the time the Middle East was under British control. The ever dutiful Anna had been relegated to a life at home while her husband was stationed in Sudan. When he develops a sickness and cannot be nursed back to health, she becomes despondent and melancholy. Despite her best efforts, she finds a chasm between them which she cannot reduce, and ends up blaming herself†¦Ã¢â‚¬  if she had loved him better, perhaps he would have not needed to go to the Sudan. If she had understood him better, perhaps she could have nursed him back to health† (Souief, 2000, 41). The Victorian rules and attitude show that the woman’s place in the British household of 1900 was not far from that of a rudimentary society such as Egypt. No wonder she decides to travel to a new and distant country in search of adventure, and in the process is attracted to the young and robust nationalist. It is an escape from a life of emptiness and drudgery. This Victorian despondency is also seen in Charlotte Parker Gilman’s ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ and Kate Chopin’s ‘The Story of an Hour’- but each chooses to deal with it in an entirely different way. Moving forward to the present, we see that Isabel too has fallen in love with Amal’s brother Omar but he is not reciprocating his thoughts or feelings. Aware of his Arabic traditions, he prefers to send Isabel to his sister Amal rather than help

Intercultural managerial communications Term Paper

Intercultural managerial communications - Term Paper Example The study at hand discusses the topic of intercultural managerial communications. In order to elaborate upon the subject, it will include discussions on intercultural myths, how people differ culturally, language and non-verbal sensitivity. It sets out to demonstrate the importance of managers gaining knowledge of various business cultures around the world so they can manage from a global perspective. Without knowing the culture of a place, it would be hard for one to engage in meaningful ventures. Language is a tool for people to communicate their thoughts and non-verbal sensitivity specifically how people decode or perceive the behavior of others, be it with those they have specific relationships with or not. Various cultures have different modes of communication even within their own subculture. It is of utmost importance for business professionals to be sensitive to the different cultures within the regions they operate to successfully communicate in other cultures. Intercultural Managerial Communications The communication in an organization or workplace is described as the conveying of messages with the help of a proper channel and medium to the desired receiver. According to the social constructionist approach, the communication in an organization pertains to the manner in which the use of language establishes various types of social structures, which may include teams, relationships, and networks. Managerial communication also refers to the related aspects of the organizational communication. It is an activity which assists the managers in communicating with the employees as well as amongst each other in the organization. The Managerial Communication facilitates in providing an even flow of information amongst them which directs them towards a mutual goal. Culture Culture is an amassed system of values, rules, norms, experiences and concrete behavior which man adapts from descending generations and aims at passing forward to ascending generations (Nakaya ma and Halualani 2011). In organizations, the word culture reflects on the business practices and the way of doing things. Business professionals have to learn the different business cultures before doing business in various markets so they can minimize the risk of business failure. Obtaining knowledge about different styles of communication, forms of body language, dressing, greetings, negotiation techniques and meeting approaches is vital in gaining successful business relations with like-minded people. Successful leadership engages the subject of intercultural managerial communication through discussing the branches of culture, intercultural myths, how people’s perceptions differ, language, and non-verbal sensitivities. People differ culturally in various ways such as voice pitch, words used, accents and nonverbal communication i.e. body language. In addition, within the cultures, there is a contrast in how people communicate. Certain actions may be acceptable within some cultures and not applicable in others. There are things that one can do in their culture and if they did the same in other cultures, they may be perceived as being undisciplined or offensive. There are also things that one can omit in some cultures and, therefore be perceived as rude in other cultures. For example, people must be sensitive to the different forms of greetings as they travel from one culture to another. Thus, many business profession

Right attitude in a medical office setting Essay

Right attitude in a medical office setting - Essay Example 93), it must be a decision or a choice that will have to be made. One can therefore choose to have positive or negative and like in any work setting, the positive attitude must be the preferred choice to contribute to the business of providing care to the patients. A positive attitude of employees can help a lot in the recovery of patients. Since attitude affects and influences other’s behavior, a responsible medical employee must behave positively to influence people in office including the patients and other co-workers. A medical assistant for example will be able to transmit positive attitude towards the patient if he or she accepts the patient as a unique individual who with rights of treatment with dignity and compassion in a non-judgmental manner (Southard, 2008). The employee needs demonstrate empathy, interest and concern by telling patient or letting the latter feel that he or she is important to the employee (Southard, 2008). Such a caring attitude exerts a positive influence on the sick person’s attitude, behavior and response. The same could help in promoting the fast recovery of the patient. An employee’s good personal appearance can help the patients to perceive a positive attitude of the person and how the medical office values them. Every employee must also have a positive image to the patient. This can be done by showing good health and good grooming present.

People management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

People management - Essay Example These developments have many advantages and several disadvantages which will be discussed through critical review. Recruitment and selection of graduates A government-sponsored initiative referred to as the Graduate Talent Pool is a live website that hosts over 2,000 jobs for graduates that are sponsored by businesses in multiple industries. The website also offers information and guidance to graduate job seekers backed by government support and sponsorship for over 10,000 graduate internships (Jensen 2009). Graduates sign up for usage of the Graduate Talent Pool website, thus registering their names and demographic/educational information for head-hunters looking for top graduate talent. Using websites such as this that are backed by government give these businesses more credibility and visibility in key markets. As well, the advantages of using web-based recruitment tools is that it provides opportunities for data mining as a quantitative tool for market research on graduate trends , values and skill-sets. When students sign up for registry to apply to these jobs or internships, their demographic information is placed in a database where information can be extracted by the organisation. Personal and educational data can be correlated with business needs and objectives to determine what percentage of the graduate labour pool maintains the skills required to fit business needs, thus developing better future recruitment tests and promotional tools to gain more visibility in the job market. Companies are also using the Internet to recruit candidates using the social media platform to be much more interactive with graduates, thus performing some of the selection tools first-hand through blogging or direct online discussion with recruiters. Some law firms, as one example, are using websites like BraveNewTalent, an online talent marketer that invites graduates to engage directly with employers in an online community (Recruiter 2010). Once a graduate has entered the o nline community, they build their personalized profile and then have multiple opportunities to browse job listing and connect to their desired potential employer. BraveNewTalent and many websites like this that use Talent Words, a Google feature to guide interested job seekers to employers, assists in linking the graduate job-seeker to social media sites such as Twitter, Facebook or YouTube to communicate with business leadership or review their real-time data about needs and business values (Recruiter). Social media is becoming a mainstream lifestyle tool for society as well as business. â€Å"Collectively, these social technologies have enabled a revolution in user-generated content, global community and the publishing of consumer opinion† (Smith 2009, p.559). Because social media is being used as a platform for job opportunity promotion and to better create interpersonal and interactive relationships with graduate job-seekers, it changes the scope of relationship between g raduate and recruiter. An additional benefit of this methodology for recruitment

Personal ethics development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal ethics development - Essay Example The process of testing rules comprises of its universality i.e. can the rules be universally applied to everyone or it treats people as ends but not the means. Every individual has some of the sources where he or she draws some of the basic principles in life that forms the basis of what is wrong or right behavior. In several instances, the following are some of the major sources of ethics. Childhood upbringing- every person learns ethics from his or her parents through either words or most importantly through their actions. I learned some of the ethics by observing and listening and observing what my parents as I grew up. Life experience- at a later stage in life, some of the events directly and consciously shapes the ethics of an individual. For instance, an individual who was treated unfairly during a road accident may most likely have negative attitude in life towards people who treated him or her unfairly. Religious beliefs- nearly most of the religions in the world teach similar code of ethics that emphasizes on respect for other people’s rights, honest and selflessness. Therefore, whether in business or in business situations, religious people act in a manner that is seen as being ethical A person’s ethics can be displayed in the place of work since an individual and the organization can both affect each other’s actions and behavior. Team leaders have a great impact on their team’s behavior and ethics. A place of work is a good place to learn ethics since employees affect each other’s psychology and moral behavior. Therefore employees act as each other’s source of inspiration Good ethics assist an individual in understanding his or her working environment. It also assists an individual to wheedle with team members both in junior and senior positions in a friendly way. This assists in creating conducive working environment thus increasing the performance level. A

War and Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

War and Psychology - Essay Example With rising onsets of PTSD in veterans coming back from active duty, it has become more imperative in developing treatments that can combat this effectively. Conversely, psychology has also opened up windows in how current wars are now fought in respect to psychological treatment and persuasion. War has opened many new fields in psychology, such as military psychology, and expanded already pre-existing fields, such as traumatology. This comes into play when dealing with counseling. Originally, when soldier’s would suffer from the psychological ailments of war, counselors would simply dismiss it as trivial and being â€Å"shell-shocked†. As a result, many of the earlier engagements did not have adequate psychological care. As more and more veterans began returning to society after war, problems linked with PTSD such as domestic violence, drug/alcohol abuse, depression, suicide, etc. became more prevalent. Therefore, war had an effect on the way in which therapy was condu cted in special cases of PTSD. There have also been additions to grief counseling, as the knowledge of grieving and effects of depression have been understood. The advent of psychopharmacology allows psychologists to have their therapy supplemented by medicine through a psychiatrist (Herman, 1997). Conversely, the understanding of the human mind has affected the way in which war is conducted. For example, there is a branch of the United States Army, which is entitled Psychological Operations. The goal of this branch is to use propaganda and persuasion tactics to coerce the local population to see that they are not a threat. This also requires an understanding of group dynamics in order to coerce a population. On a more negative note, psychology has also taught military and government officials to understand the workings of the human mind. They have been learning better interrogation techniques, some of which have been under review by the United States government. In addition, better understanding into the work of memory and information extraction has lead to the development of technologies and medicines to aid in this effort (Goldstein, & Findley, 1996). The psychology of war has also had benefits in other areas that are more civilian related. For example, again with trauma, there are traumas that occur in the civilian realm. These can include rape, child abuse, etc. The techniques used in traumatology are derived from those that are used in military PTSD cases. The logotherapy and CBT counseling is used in all trauma related counseling (Reyes, Elhai, & Ford, 2008). Concluding, not only has war had an impact on the development in psychology, but has also had an impact on the way in which the psychology of war has been approached. Many good things have developed through learning how to counsel those affected by wartime. Constrastly, there have been what some people would consider negative developments in which psychology has aided to defending our country throu gh interrogation and coercion methods. References Goldstein, F, & Findley, B. (1996). Psychological operations: principles and case studies. New York, NY: Air University Press. Herman, J. (1997). Trauma and recovery. New York, NY: Basic Books. Reyes, Gerald, Elhai, J, & Ford, J. (2008). The encyclopedia of psychological trauma. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &

UPS Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

UPS - Case Study Example The last part of the paper will sum up the main points discussed and recommendations will be given with regards to the measures that can be taken in order to effectively deal with the problems discussed. Description of the organization and problem identification United Parcel Service was founded in 1907 in USA and it specifically dealt with delivering an assortment of parcels and goods sent through its office to different clients. It started from humble beginnings where all packages were delivered by foot, street bicycle as well as street car. However, the company re-engineered itself to become a state-of-the-art delivery service when it introduced its first delivery car, a Model T Ford in 1913. The organization witnessed positive developments and went through different stages until 1980 which saw the passage of the passage of Motor Career Act which deregulated the whole trucking industry. The organization even introduced air services as it sought to diversify its activities to counter competition which was intensifying as a result of the deregulation exercise of this industry. However, increased competition as a result of deregulation compelled the organization to allocate large amounts of capital to modernize its data processing department. The deregulation of the freight industry also posed immense challenges to UPS given that the emerging entrants utilized low cost services such as the Federal Express Corporation. As such, it has been observed that data processing operated with poor equipment and the service provided was poor given that it fell beyond the competition that existed in technological and programming capabilities. Up until 1981, the department of information faced unprecedented challenges of technologically more advanced competition from Federal Express and RPS. It was realized that in order for UPS to remain the dominant carrier package delivery service, it had to join the competitors in the age of computer technology. Whilst UPS had the most extensive ground network, it had apparently been left in core areas such as technological innovations which included scanning, radio-dispatched pickups, package tracking, and data-acquisition devices. Despite the mission which was meant to â€Å"to provide management with the information it needs to meet the company’s goals in a responsive manner and at a reasonable cost,† the company fell short of achieving this goal given that it had limited numbers of employees with the requisite skills to execute the information requirements of the company. The main problem facing UPS is that it has to implement changes in order to meet the marketing and technological challenges that have been co mpounded by the deregulation exercise in this industry. It is facing a dilemma particularly in making decisions to hire or recruit talent from within the company or hire experienced people in information systems from outside. The problem with locating talent within the company is that most of the employees have experience in hub and package centers and have less experience in the new dispensation of information and communication technology. On the other hand, the problem related to hiring people from outside is related to re-orienting them to fit in the culture of the organization, training them, matching their expectations and helping them grow to meet the expectations of the organization. Stakeholder analysis The main players in this particular case are the employees who are responsible for executing all the tasks within the organization. Any change to the

Voting Behaviour Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Voting Behaviour - Case Study Example These are based on studies conducted by the Center for Research into Elections and Social Trends (CREST). This section will also deal with the changes in voting behaviour patterns that have been observed in Britain, and how changes in social and economic systems can impact voter behaviour. The next section will deal with the common theoretical frameworks used in the analysis of voting behaviour. Based on the discussions in the book, 'Political Choice in Britain' (2004), by Clarke, Sanders, Stewart and Whiteley, this part will deal with the traditional sociological framework, followed by the individual rationalist approach. Widening the scope of the individual rationalist approach, the focus will shift to what are termed valence politics models. In the next section, these models will be used to analyse the voting behaviour patterns in the 2001 and 2005 general elections. This section will also discuss the issues of voter apathy and the growing trend towards tactical voting. The paper will conclude with a discussion on the changing patterns of voter behaviour in Britain, and will also discuss how these can be very essential in predicting the outcome of future elections in Britain. A key factor influencing voter behaviour is social attitude. ... Discussing voting behaviour, the CREST studies note that the social class remains a key influence on how people vote. Curtice (2002) states that this is in line with Pulzer's famous words, "Class is the basis of British politics; all else is embellishment and detail". The studies also note that a voter's behaviour is not motivated by self-interest and that the media, especially newspapers, have little influence on the election results. The studies also note the emergence of tactical voting as a means of expressing preferences. Changes in social attitudes and voting behaviour are a result of changing social and economic conditions. In the 21st century, the common man in Britain does not enjoy the social and economic certainty and cohesion that characterized life in the 1950s. The employment position is less secure, and the society he/she lives in is more diverse. In modern Britain, class boundaries are more fluid, and the average citizen has access to several sources of information, and the right to make the appropriate social and economic choices. (Clarke, Sanders, Stewart and Whiteley,2004, pg.2) The socio-economic changes have had an impact on the political thinking of the citizens as well. The biggest impact has perhaps been on the attitude of the British citizens towards politics, especially in how they vote at the time of elections. To understand the changes in voting patterns, the models of voting behaviour need to be studied. Models of Voting Behaviour There are several theoretical frameworks that analyse voting behaviour in elections. The foremost among them is the sociological framework proposed by Butler and Stokes in 1969. This framework works on three levels. To begin with,

Gay Community in the Army Essay Example for Free

Gay Community in the Army Essay The story of the African American struggle after the Emancipation Declaration is quite significant in the current occurrences in the United States. One issue that has mirrored the struggle of the freed slaves has been the struggle of the gay community for acceptance in the military and to enjoy marriage rights just as the heterosexual couples. While there are similarities between these two historical happenings as both sought to have equal rights, privileges and treatment just like other citizens of the land, there are also some quite significant differences between the two. While the gay community has been struggling to have protection rights and recognition in the military, the freed slaves were happily recruited in the military but were never extended the privileges of having legal marriages (Berlin, Reidy Rowland, 1982). Policies that have been adopted by the military over the years have been quite discriminating against the gay community and those serving in its ranks. At some point, the homosexuals were entirely banned from joining the military. And although the gay rights movement has struggled to have their members join the military, the war is far from over. Just as was experienced by the freed slaves in the military who were never extended the rights to vote and legally marry, the gay community still suffers discrimination and lack recognition in the military. This is coupled with lack of laws to recognize their marriages. Outside the military, the other comparison between these two struggles has to be in the social and political spheres. While the freed slaves were concerned with lack of political and social rights which they could not enjoy, the gay community problems have been even worse. The current federal laws do not any bit recognize gay people let alone their marriages. The law therefore does not simply prohibit but perpetuate discrimination in all fronts (Nguyen, 1999). Just as was the case during the struggle by the free slaves to enjoy equal social and political rights which were prohibited by laws, the law again has been used to discriminate against sexual orientation. In conclusion, the two struggles are more similar than different and the only difference is probably the historical times of their occurrence. Common in both of them is the inherent intolerance of minorities in our culture. Laws are erected on the way to justify our convictions against people or practices we do not like. Nevertheless, just as the struggle of the African American, the gay community may triumph someday. References Berlin, I. Reidy, J. Rowland, L. S. eds (1982). Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861-1867, Series 2, Vol. 1, The Black Military Experience, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Nguyen, M. T. (1999). Civil Rights – the History of Gay Rights. Retrieved on August 9, 2010, from http://webcache. googleusercontent. com/search? q=cache:er-MHl1Bb6sJ:www. enderminh. com/minh/civilrights. aspx+struggles+of+gay+community+to+be+accepted+in+the+militarycd=4hl=enct=clnkgl=keclient=firefox-a

A Solar Cell (The Photovoltaic Cell) Essay

A Solar Cell (The Photovoltaic Cell) Essay A solar cell or the photovoltaic cell is an electrical device that converts light energy directly into electricity. This cell when exposed to light can generate and support an electric current without being attached to any external voltage source. The solar cell uses the photovoltaic effect to produce electricity.thw word Photovoltaic comes from the Greek word meaning light, and from the word Volt, which is the the unit of electro-motive force also the word volt comes from the last name of the inventor of the battery (electrochemical cell), the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta. Thus we get the term photo-voltaic. The photovoltaic effect, in brief, is a process in which electric current is produced in a material upon exposure to light. The photovoltaic effect being directly related to the photoelectric effect is actually a different phenomenon. In photovoltaic effect, the light is incident upon the material surface; the electrons present in the valance band of the atom absorb energy from the light and jump to the conduction band (band theory). Now these electrons are attracted by a positively charged electrode and thus the circuit is completed and the light energy is converted into electric energy. On the other hand, in photoelectric effect, the electrons are ejected from a materials surface upon exposure to radiation. Photovoltaic systems are extraordinary and very useful with a huge list of advantages. The reason they are so unique is they have no moving parts (in the classical mechanical sense) to wear out. There are no fluids or gases (except in hybrid systems) that can leak out. The best part about these is that they need no fuel to operate. Having a rapid response, they achieve full output instantly. These cells can operate at moderate temperatures producing no pollution while producing electricity, although waste products from their manufacture and toxic gases in the event of catastrophic failure and disposal may be a concern. Solar cells require little maintenance if properly manufactured and installed. Silicon, the second most abundant element in the earths crust can be used to make these cells. Thus, their production is possible on a large scale with an added advantage of them being modular, permitting a wide range of solar-electric applications such as: 1) Small scale for remote applications and residential use. 2) Intermediate scale for business and neighborhood supplementary power. 3) Large scale for centralized energy farms of square kilometers size. Solar cells have a relatively high conversion efficiency giving the highest overall conversion efficiency from sunlight to electricity yet measured. This gives them wide power-handling capabilities, from microwatts to megawatts. Clearly, photovoltaic cells have an appealing range of characteristics. [1] 1.1 HISTORY The physical phenomenon responsible for converting light to electricity-the photovoltaic effect-was first observed in 1839 by a French physicist, Edmund Becquerel. Becquerel noted that a voltage appeared when one of two identical electrodes in a weak conducting solution was illuminated. The Photovoltaic effect was first to be noticed and researched in solids, e.g. selenium, in the 1870s. However, it was in 1883 Charles Fritts built the first solid state photovoltaic cell; he coated the semiconductor selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold to form the junctions. The device was only around 1% efficient. In 1888 Russian physicist Aleksandr Stoletov built the first photoelectric cell based on the outer photoelectric effect discovered by Heinrich Hertz earlier in 1887. The first practical photovoltaic cell was developed in 1954 at Bell Laboratories by Daryl Chapin, Calvin Souther Fuller and Gerald Pearson. A diffused silicon p-n junction was used by them; this junction could reach 6% efficiency, as compared to the selenium cells in which it was difficult to reach 0.5%. At first, cells were developed for toys and other minimal uses, since the cost of the electricity they produced then was very high; i.e. a cell that produces 1 watt of electrical power in bright sunlight cost about $250, compared to $2 to $3 per watt for a coal plant. [2] In 1958, the U.S. Vanguard space satellite used a small (less than one-watt) array of cells to power its radio. These cells functioned so well that the space scientists soon realized the Photovoltaic could be a very effective power source for many space missions. Technological development of the solar cell has been a part of the space program ever since then. Besides the space programs, another source is the transistor industry has contributed greatly to solar-cell technology. Transistors and PV cells are made from similar materials, and their workings are determined by many of the same physical mechanisms. A great amount of research and development has been done in improving and developing the ever-useful transistor, and there has been a regular discovery of valuable information in relation to solar cells. This situation has reversed in recent times and much of the research happening in PV is affecting transistor technology. 1.2 EFFICIANCY OF SOLAR CELLS Today, photovoltaic systems are capable of transforming one kilowatt of solar energy falling on one square meter into about a hundred watts of electricity. One hundred watts can power most household appliances like television, stereo, or a lamp etc. . In fact, on a standard basis a roof covered with solar cells facing the sun in a typical home provides about 8500-kilowatthours of electricity annually, which also is almost equal to a average households annual consumption on electricity. On comparison, a present-day, 200-ton electric-arc steel furnace, demanding electricity worth 50,000 kilowatts, would for a PV power supply, require about a square kilometer of land. Certain factors make capturing solar energy difficult. Apart from the suns low illuminating power per square meter, sunlight is discontinuous and is affected by time of day, climate, pollution, and season. Power sources based on photovoltaic require either back-up from other sources or storage for times when the sun is obs cured. Moreover, the cost of a photovoltaic system is very high (electricity from PV systems in 1980 cost about 20 times * that from conventional systems powered by fossil fuels). Thus, solar energy for photovoltaic conversion into electricity is abundant, inexhaustible, and clean; yet, on the other hand it also requires special techniques to gather enough of it effectively. When sunlight is incident on the solar cell, most of the energy is lost even before it can be converted to electricity. Maximal sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiencies for solar cells range up to 30% (and even higher for some highly complex cell designs), but typical efficiencies are 10%-15%. Most current work on cells is directed at enhancing efficiency while lowering cost. Certain physical processes limit cell efficiency-some are inherent and cannot be changed; many can be improved by proper design. Reflection is the first factor that reduces the efficiency of the cell. Normal, untreated silicon reflects 36% (or more) of the sunlight that strikes it. This would be a horrendous loss in terms of efficiency. Fortunately, there are several ways of treating cell surfaces to cut reflection drastically. By dint of these methods, reflection can be lowered to a quite manageable 5% or so. The second factor affecting the electricity production and then, in turn, the efficiency of the cell is the intensity of light falling on it. Now, this light can be of two types- -Light that is not energetic enough to separate electrons from their atomic bonds. -Light that has extra energy beyond that needed to separate electrons from bonds. Both of the above types of light contribute in reducing the efficiency of the cell. Light entering a solar cell can- a. Go right through it. b. Become absorbed, generating heat in the form of atomic vibrations. c. Separate an electron from its atomic bond, producing an electron-hole pair. d. Produce an electron-hole pair but have an excess of energy, which then becomes heat. Only (c) is a near-perfect means of transforming sunlight into electricity. Since the suns spectrum has a wide variety of energies and intensities, the key is to match a material and its characteristic band gap energy with the spectrum so that the maximum amount of energy in the suns spectrum falls just above the characteristic energy. The third factor that reduces the efficiency of the cell is electron-hole recombination. There are two ways in which recombination of electrons and holes occurs, which can be characterized as direct and indirect recombination. -Direct Recombination: Direct recombination is relatively rare. It happens when an electron and a hole randomly encounter each other, and the electron falls back into the hole. Thus the materials original bonds are reasserted, and the electrons and holes energies are lost as heat. -Indirect Recombination: Indirect recombination can occur in many ways. (Indirect means that the electron and hole do not just run into each other and combine-the interaction is influenced by further circumstances.) Contrary to what one might expect, indirect recombination is much more of a problem in solar cells than direct recombination. Resistance is a factor which reduced efficiency of almost all known electrical appliances and the solar cell is no different. Resistance losses in solar cells occur predominantly in three places: in the bulk of the base material, in the narrow top-surface layer typical of many cells and at the interface between the cell and the electric contacts leading to an external circuit. Resistance losses lower voltage and enhance the chances of recombination of charges, reducing current. Usually it is better to highly dope silicon to reduce resistance as highly doped silicon has numerous free carriers to conduct the current. After considering the various factors discussed, we can actually look forward to see and study the construction of the solar cells with maximum possible efficiency. [3-10] 1.3 types AND GENERATIONS of solar cells Solar cells can be of many types as we know them. Todays modern technology has allowed us to be able to study each in detail and help with improving energy output and increasing efficiency. There are three types of solar cell- Amorphous cells, Polycrystalline Monocrystalline. Amorphous, also known as the thin-film solar cells are more commonly seen in devices like toys, calculators etc. Monocrystalline solar cells are cut from one silicon ingot which is got from a single large silicon crystal. Polycrystalline cells are cut from an ingot derived from many smaller crystals. Mono cells are made by growing an ingot of the silicon crystal from a smaller crystal, hence the name mono-crystalline or single-crystal. This ingot is then trimmed and sliced into wafers. In case of polycrystalline cells, molten silicon is poured into a square mould allowing it to set. Now silicon cools and sets at different rates, that is, the inside cools slower than the outer part and there is no seed crystal to grow the new material. This uneven cooling itself creates multiple crystals within the block thus giving it the name of poly-crystalline or multi-crystalline. Due to its multifaceted surface, this type of solar cell is a better performer even in dim light conditions giving greater wattage even from a small surface area. Amorphous cells are made by depositing a thin sheet of silicon over a surface like steel. The panel we get is a single piece and individual cells are not visible. These cells do not have a high efficiency and thus give a lesser investment for our investment. Apart from this solar cells can be divided into three generations, being: 1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation First-generation cells are based on expensive silicon wafers and makeup 85% of the current commercial market. Second-generation cells are based on thin films compounds such as amorphous silicon, or copper indium selenide. The materials are relatively cheap, but research is needed to raise the efficiency of these cells if the cost of delivered power is to be reduced. Third-generation cells have shown a dramatic increase in efficiency that maintains the cost advantage of 2nd generation materials. Their design may make use of carrier multiplication, hot electron extraction, multiple junctions, sunlight concentration, or new materials.[11] First generation solar cells: These are the dominant type of cells available in the commercial market. A crystalline silicon wafer is used for the production of these cells. They tend to have a large surface area and a single layer p-n junction diode. Being so widely used, these cells have their own advantages and disadvantages. On the pros side, these cells have a broad spectral absorption rate and also have high carrier mobility. But these cells require expensive manufacturing technologies and also growing ingots is a very intensive process. Another disadvantage we can usually observe in these cells is that it is relatively easy for an electron to encounter a hole and thus that leads to recombination instead of electricity production. Most of the energy from a high energy photon is usually lost as heat.[12] Second generation solar cells: Second generation solar cells are mounted on glass substrates. The production costs that were plaguing first generation solar cells find some relief with the second generation. There are many companies who desire to release second-generation thin-film solar cells to the public. The material used in second generation solar cells are normally; amorphous silicon, micro-crystalline silicon, cadmium telluride (CadTel) and copper indium selenide/sulfide[14]. We see a potential for cost advantages in this generation over crystalline silicon because of various reasons. There is a lower material use along with fewer and simpler manufacturing steps. These cells also have the perfect band gap for solar energy conversion.[13][14] Third generation solar cells: The third generation cells are very different from the previously discussed cells. They do not rely on a p-n junction to separate photo-generated charge carriers but are based on a silicon substrate with a coating of nanocrystals. The third generation is the future of solar cells and the cheapest of them all. They are exactly what the sun-powered industry needs for renewable and efficient power sources. As solar cell technology continues to grow, our solar conversion efficiency will continue to rise and production expenditure will continue to drop. The third generation solar cells focus on reducing manufacturing cost and enhancing the performance of 2nd generation solar cell technology. Nanotechnology is one area that is being researched upon by this new generation of cells. Nanotechnology is being used to improve the basic solar cell to have improved electrical performance which also makes it more cost efficient. [15,16] 1.4 POLYMER SOLAR CELL AND ITS DEVELOPMENT One of the unique 3rd generation solar cells we know today is the polymeric solar cell. usually consist of an electron- or hole-blocking layer on top of an indium tin oxide (ITO) conductive glass followed by electron donor and an electron acceptor (in the case of bulk heterojunction solar cells), a hole or electron blocking layer, and metal electrode on top. During the last 30 years the polymer solar cell has developed from an inefficient light-harvesting device with almost no lifetime to a device that may be introduced to the commercial market within a short span of years. Today scientists are working with a lot of di ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erent types of polymer solar cells and since it will be too comprehensive to deal with all of them, only one type will be treated in this report. The type of solar cell which will be treated is a polymer/fullerene bulk hetero-junction solar cell This type of polymer solar cell consist of 6 layers: Glass, ITO, PEDOT:PSS, active layer, calcium and aluminum. The glass serves as a supporting layer for the solar cell and the only demand glass has to ful ¬Ã‚ ll is that it does not absorb light in the visible area, since the solar cell uses this light to generate power. Other and more  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡exible types of supporting layers, like transparent polymers, can also be used. The focus of this report will not lie on the supporting layer and therefore the use of other types of supporting layers will not be discussed any further.[18] ITO (indium tin oxide) and aluminum serves as the electrodes in the solar cell. Beyond that, the ITO and Aluminium are also used to generate a built-in electric held caused by the difference in the metals work functions. This electric field is used dissociate the excitons, which are generated when the active layer absorbs light, and afterwards to pull the charge carriers out from the active layer. Like glass the ITO layer is transparent in the visible area. PEDOT:PSS (poly[3,4-(ethylenedioxy)-thiophene]:poly(styrene sulfonate)) and calcium are two materials which are introduced into the solar cell in order to increase the built-in electric  ¬Ã‚ eld and thereby improve the performance of the solar cell. The active layer in this polymer solar cell consists of a blend between the conjugated polymer MEH-PPV ((poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)- 1,4-phenylenevinylene])) and the modi ¬Ã‚ ed fullerene PCBM (1-(3-Methoxycarbonylpropyl)-1-phenyl-[6.6]C61). MEH-PPV is the absorbing part of the active layer and PCBM is introduced into the layer to make the dissociation of the excitons more e ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ective. In bulk heterojunction polymer solar cells, light generates excitons with subsequent separation of charges in the interface between an electron donor and acceptor blend within the devices active layer. These charges then transport to the devices electrodes where these charges flow outside the cell, perform work and then re-enter the device on the opposite side. The cells efficiency is limited by several factors especially non-geminate recombination. Hole mobility leads to faster conduction across the active layer.[29][30] By simply blending polymers (electron donors) with fullerene (electron acceptor) in organic solvents, a self assembling interpenetrating network can be obtained using various coating technologies ranging from laboratory-scale spin coating or spray coating to large-scale fabrication technologies such as inkjet printing[20,21], doctor blading [17] , gravure[23] , slot-die coating[24] and  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡exographic printing[25] . In the last few years, several effective methods have been developed to optimize the interpenetrating network formed by the electron donor and acceptor, including solvent annealing (or slow-growth)[ 25] , thermal annealing[ 26-28] and morphology control using mixed solvent mixtures[ 29] or additives [30] in the solutions of donor/acceptor blends. Poly (3-hexylthiophene)(P3HT) in particular has been subject to increasing interest in the polymer research community, but signi ¬Ã‚ cant progress has also been made in developing new active-layer polymer materials [19,30-37] . Since around 2008, the efficiency of PSCs has risen to 6% using new conjugated polymers as electron donors [34]. Although progress has been impressive, there is still much to do before the realization of practical applications of PSCs. Many factors need to be taken into account in efficiently converting sunlight into electricity. Figure 2: Shows the energy levels in a polymer solar cell. ITO(indium tin oxide) is used as the high work function electrode and Al is used as the low work function electrode. (a) displays the energy levels before the polymer solar cell is assembled. (b and c) shows the energy levels after assembling. In (b) the polymer is an isolator and therefore the electric field changes linearly through the cell. The polymer used in (c) is a hole conducting polymer and therefore a Schottky junction will be formed between the polymer and the low work function electrode. The absorption range, the photon-electron conversion rate and the carrier mobilities of the light-harvesting polymers are among the crucial parameters for achieving high-efficiency solar cells. Furthermore, fabricating large area devices without signi ¬Ã‚ cantly losing efficiency while maintaining long lifetime of the device remains challenging.[38] [39] Therefore, a major challenge lies in fabricating polymer solar cells, in which free-charge-carrier generation is a critical step. Fortunately, it has been found that efficient charge transfer can take place between materials, that is, donor and acceptor molecules, with suitable energy level offsets. The strong electric field at the molecular interface of two materials with different electrochemical potentials is capable of separating the excitons into weakly bounded Coulombic pairs, and thereafter separated charge carriers. In cases where the donor and acceptor molecules form an intimate contact in blend films, efficient charge transfer takes place with an efficiency approaching 100%. The short exciton diffusion length which is much smaller than the necessary film thickness for effective optical absorption, has limited the external quantum efficiency (EQE) and hampers the efficient utilization of the photogenerated excitons in organic photovoltaics. A major breakthrough was achieved with the bulk heterojunction (BHJ) concept, where the nanoscale phase separation creates donor/acceptor interfaces for exciton dissociation via efficient charge transfer from donor to acceptor throughout the film. The concepts of donor/acceptor and BHJs, thus, establish the cornerstones of polymer solar cells. Diagram of a polymer-fullerene bulk heterojunction. The bulk-heterojunction concept. After absorption of light by the photoactive material, charge transfer can easily occur due to the nano-scopic mixing of the donor and acceptor (solid and dashed area). Subsequently, the photo generated charges are transported and collected at the electrodes. Here highest occupied molecular orbital is abbreviated as HOMO and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital as LUMO. Despite the high attainable EQE, overall power conversion efficiencies (PCE) reported are still low, due to the inferior charge-transport properties and limited spectral absorption range of the polymer active layer. On one hand, endeavors in synthesis and development of novel low-band-gap polymers are being carried out to harvest the major part of the solar spectrum. [40-46] On the other hand, film-growth dynamics of polymer blends via solution processes has become one of the central topics to derive maximal efficiency from bulk-heterojunction structures. Meanwhile, precise efficiency measurements provide solutions to the spectral mismatch between the solar spectrum and polymer absorption, offering accurate evaluation of novel photoactive materials. High internal quantum efficiencies can be expected, provided that efficient donor-to-acceptor charge transfer and transport in the bulk heterojunctions occurs. A suitable energy-level alignment between the donor and acceptor to provide the driving force morphology plays a decisive role linking the optoelectronic properties and device performance to the fabrication processes. In addition to experimental results, simulation techniques have also been applied to predict the optimal morphology, yielding results that are consistent with the experimental conclusion that a nanoscale phase separation with a bi-continuous pathway toward the electrode is desired. Fabrication parameters such as solvent selection and annealing treatment are the most critical factors in film morphology. However, additive incorporation also showed significant benefits toward improving device performance. The overall effects of morphology manipulation assist in forming an interpenetrating network of donor and acceptor molecules, facilitating both charge transfer and carrier transport. Lateral phase separation has been observed and well-understood in several systems. Beyond that, the ingredient distribution of the donor and acceptor molecules along the cross-section of blend films, that is, vertical phase separation has been observed recently in the nanoscale film morphology, which intuitively governs the charge transport and collection. Thus, an ideal morphology consists of phase separation laterally and vertically, which should both be optimized for satisfying device performance.[47,50-52] A variety of post-treatment methods can alter the optoelectronic properties of the polymer-blend films. Annealing processes in polymer solar cells can be divided into two categories: thermal annealing [53,57,58] and solvent annealing.[48,59-61] Both techniques concentrate on improving the nano scale lateral phase separation of both the crystalline P3HT aggregates and PCBM domains. Thermal annealing can be applied either on the final device (post-annealing) or on the polymer film only (pre-annealing). The annealing temperature and time are the two most critical parameters in this approach. However, the selection of solvent as well as metal electrodes could also affect the ultimate device performance. Solution processing has many advantages over other film fabrication technologies, which usually require complicated instruments as well as costly and time-consuming procedures. Therefore, solution processing has developed into the most favored methodology for fabricating organic optoelectronic devices. Solution processing also allows the freedom to control phase separation and molecular self-organization during solvent evaporation and/or film treatment. The solvent establishes the film evolution environment, and thus has foreseeable impact on the final film morphology. Selection and combination of solvents have been shown to be critical for the morphology in polymer-blend films, and are well-documented in the literature. [48,49]. Spin-coating from single-solvent solutions results in thin films, which possess optoelectronic properties determined by the solution parameters and the spin-coating process, for example concentration, blending ratio, spin speed and time, etc. Meanwhile, solv ent properties, such as boiling point, vapor pressure, solubility, and polarity, also have considerable impact on the final film morphology. [62-75] 1.5 Work function of solar cells 1.5.1 Work function of material The work function is the minimum energy needed to move an electron from the Fermi energy level, EF, to vacuum energy, Evac.   The work function varies by using different materials and also by doping. It is lower for n-type semiconductor than for p-type because Fermi levels within the band gap of a semiconductor depends upon doping. Where are work functions of the n-type and p-type materials respectively. Junctions having different work functions give way to an electrostatic field. 1.5.2 Metal-semiconductor junction Metal-semiconductor junction is the simplest type of charge separating junction. If we have an n-type semiconductor of work function metal of work function, such that, it is called a Schottky barrier. When metal and semiconductor are separate from each other, the Fermi levels will look like in fig. 5(a). But when they are in contact (electronic), these levels will line up. The exchange of charge carriers across the junction results in this, with the consequence that the layers approach the equilibrium (thermal). The energy at the conduction band edge at the interface between semiconductor and metal is higher than in the bulk of the semiconductor. The electrostatic potential energy is shown in fig. 5(b) by the change in Evac. The space charge region or depletion region is the region where there is a net charge. As Evac changes, so must the conduction and valence band energies, and that too by the same amount (proportionality). This happens because the electron affinity and band gap are invariant in the semiconductor, and is called band bending.[76] 1.5.3 p-n heterojunction A heterojunction consists of two different materials with different band gaps and these can also be either p-n or p-i-n junctions. Devices based on heterojunctions can improve carrier collection and thus efficiency. Due to change in the band gap, a discontinuity exists in the conduction and valence band at the junction. The potential step will affect the effective fields for the two carrier types in different ways. Usually, one carrier type is assisted by the field change, while the other is opposed. In fig. 6(b), the field that drives electrons to the n side is increased, while the field driving holes towards the p side is decreased. [76] We know that the standard form of an organic photovoltaic cell is based upon sandwiching a thin semiconducting organic layer(s) between two conducting layers having different work functions here we have higher work function conductors typically made of gold or ITO and lower work function conductors typically made of aluminum or calcium.   We have already discussed in section 1.2 how the efficiency of solar cell can be improved, here we will consider mathematical expression of efficiency. Efficiency is defined as measures the amount of energy converted to electric current relative to the total energy incident upon the cell, it is designated with Greek letter , ÃŽÂ ·. The formula for calculating efficiency is: ÃŽÂ · = Jsc X Voc X FF, where Jsc is the short-circuit current (when there is maximum current flowing and no voltage difference across the circuit),  Voc is the open-circuit voltage (when there is no current flowing), and FF is the fill-factor (the actual power relative to the theoretical power produced by the cell). To increase the efficiency of Polymer Solar cells, we need to improve these 3 factors. Jsc is primarily affected by band-gap, carrier mobility, and film formation properties of the active layer. Voc is primarily affected by the material band-gap and the device structure. FF, is particularly difficult to predict and design, but seems related to the relative motilities of the electrons and holes.[77-80] 1.6 Inverted Polymer Solar Cells The regular device structure for polymer solar cells is indium tin oxide (ITO), where a p-type layer is used for anode contact, and a low-work-function metal as the cathode. Both the p-type layer and the low-work-function metal cathode are known to degrade the device lifetime. [106-108] The p-type layer is potentially detrimental to the polymer active layer due to its acidic nature, which etches the ITO and causes interface instability through indium diffusion into the polymer active layer. Low work- function metals, such as calcium and lithium, are easily oxidized, increasing the series resistance at the metal/BHJ interface and degrading device performance. In principle, ITO is capable of collecting either holes or electrons, since its work function (4.5 to 4.7 eV) lies between the typical highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) values of common organic photovoltaic materials. The polarity of the ITO electrode depends mainly on the contact

Impact of IT on Bank Performance

Impact of IT on Bank Performance IMPACT OF INTERNET TECHNOLOGY ON BANKS PERFORMANCE AND CUSTOMERS SATISFACTION ABSTRACT Internet technology is very popular and has many benefits for the users; however it does has some elements of security risks to the bank and its customers at large. In this research work, I intend to look at impact of internet technology on Bank, its employees and the customers. More importantly, efforts were also made to research into various risks associated with this technology such as hacking, spam-email, phishing, identity theft or frauds and many others. After critical look at this technology and its associated risks especially the identity theft, two sets of solutions were recommended. The first set solutions addressed physical access control while the second aspect deal with authentication through the process of fingerprint and voice recognition. 1.0 INTRODUCTION This project is trying to evaluate the impact of Internet technology on banks performance and customers satisfaction. Banking industry is the bedrock of economy, the state of Banks will dictate the state of economy. If it stables, so will the economy. The present global economy recession attests to this statement. Technology innovation like Internet is groundbreaking in banking system. Transactions worth of billions of dollars take place in seconds in the electronic circuit throughout the globe (Castells, 2001). The banking and financial industry is transforming itself in unpredictable ways (Crane and Bodies 1996). Prior to the rocket of technology in banking sector, the function of the branch was very unlike the function of present branch. Earlier before the 1970s, the structure of the branch and functions were similar to one and other. Product offerings were equally the same and branches were only avenue for customers to make bank transactions. Majority of these banks were only rel ying on one or two branches but with many staff and cashiers. Customers were subjected to long distant travelling before they could carry out banking transactions. Face to face traditional banking was only means to process bank loan, make lodgements and withdrawals and customers were subjected to long queue in the banking hall. But the increase in the level of banking technology made the banks started a process of metamorphose that proceed till the end of the 20th century. As part of process, many channels of distributions were introduced. Among these channels are Automated Teller Machine (ATM), Internet banking, Telephone banking, call-centre, electronic funds transfer, wireless banking, and voice messaging systems, videoconferencing and many others. Rapid growth and development in internet technology over the last four decades have great impact on organisations. The impact was highly noticeable in area of services, products offering and business processes. Banks have use internet technology to cut operations costs, increase qualities, efficiencies and improve value-added services to the customers. Also, investment in technology gives competitive advantages to some Banks leading to some banks have opportunities to perform better than their rivals. Banks through the innovation of internet technology were able to provide better and cheaper services than traditional system of branch banking. Apart from these, level of banking transactions were equally increased, Convenience and twenty four hours banking services were also witnessed in banking system. More importantly, the level of communication within and outside the banking environment were equally improved, access to the right information and high quality of services were not comp romised. The banking environment became more friendly and flexible. Information that can only available through the means of technology became an important aspect of the banking. Many people argued that it was advance in technology of 1990s that made it possible to develop those channel of distributions and system that allowed the banks to render an unprecedented high quality services. In final analysis, this research work assess an aspect of banking that is lacking in Traditional Bank an online banking and its impact on customer satisfaction and banks performance. 1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES The research on Internet technology in banking and acceptance of modern banking by customers have been viewed in different perspectives but few aspects of this topic are left with little exploratory. There is little research on the effects of Internet technology on banks profitability and customers satisfaction. Many researchers did not fully agree that Internet technology has immensely affected the profitability level of the banks. The rationale behind this is to offer a better understanding on how internet banking is evolving. This study intends to achieve the following objectives: 1. Research the problem of identity theft and card authorisation 2. Evaluate the problem concerning lost revenue 3. Research the other work done in this area. 4. Proffer solution to the problem of identity theft and card authorisation. 5. Implementing solutions and the cost benefits 1.2 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY Banks have use internet technology to cut operations costs, increase qualities, efficiencies and improve value-added services to the customers. Also, investment in technology gives competitive advantages to some Banks leading to some banks having opportunities to perform better than their rivals. This research work is focusing on two important key elements which are: 1) Impact of internet technology on Bank and its customers and; 2) Associated risks with internet technology with more emphasis on identity theft 1.3 EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE The expected contributions to knowledge of this research work are to identify various theft and card authorisation, evaluate the problem concerning lost revenue and proffer solution to the problems. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW It is my intention to survey literature review to reveal the level of knowledge and understanding of people about identity theft. A number of text books, articles and journals internet search are used for this purpose. Among these are: a) 50 ways to protect your identity and your credit card Steve weisman The book is well written very relevant to the study and well referenced. Various types of identity thefts were discussed. It also explains that the motive behind identity theft could be for financial gain, revenge or malicious intent. The book goes further to suggest some protection rules such as only the credit cards that needed should be carried in the wallet, the practice of online account statement should be stick to, personal information should not be given on phone to unknown persons, shredding documents that containing personal detail after use and so on. But these protection rules only addressed offline identity theft, the issue of online identity theft or frauds which common to credit cards were not addressed at all. b) Business Information system (Technology, Development Management) Paul, et al The book looks at the issues of identity theft, brand abuse and costs of identity theft. The three issues discussed are equally paramount important to this research. The book is good for academic and well referenced. According to the book, â€Å"the term brand abuse is used to cover a wide range of activities, ranging from sale of counterfeit goods, for example software applications, to exploiting a well known brand name for commercial gain. It was further stated that with regards to identity theft, CIFAS(www.cifas.org), a UK-base fraud prevention service, report that there were 80,000 cases of identity theft in the UK in 2006.The coated in the companys web site showed that identity fraud cost UK economy  £1.5b in 2005 and generates a revenue of  £10m each day for fraudsters. c) Identity theft literature review- Graeme, R.N Megan M.M It is a well written article and equally well referenced. In this article, the authors focused on two important issues, the first one is the cost of identity theft while the second one focuses on the issue of legislations. The two issues discussed are very relevant to this research. The authors look at various identity legislations passed to control the crimes of identity. (www.house.gov/apps/list/press/ca29schiff/062304idThef2.html). d) Enquiry in to the credit card fraud in E- payment- Jithendra, D. Laxman, G In this article the authors look at credit card Hacking and types of credit card frauds. This article is not well referenced and authors failed to proffer adequate solutions at end of the discussion. In my opinion, the article is much related to this research work but the sources of documents used to write the article cannot be easily traced because it is not properly referenced. However, it is very helpful reading in understanding the background of the topic. e) Identity theft and credit card fraud Sarah P. Miller Sarah Millers article examines the various tactics the fraudsters use to commit credit card fraud. Some of these tactics are; opening a new credit accounts, existed accounts hijacking, skimming tactic among the other. The article also looks at various ways of protections against credit card fraud and come up with some of security measures to guard against credit card fraud in our society. The article is appropriately written and very useful for this research. The source of the article is also quoted as http://EzinArticles.com/?expert=sarahp.miller . f) Improving response time of authorization process of credit card system- Humid, siti Hafizan Ab It is a journal of computer science published in February 1 2008. The journal discusses the issue of credit card authorization process. It also explains the pitfalls and benefits of credit card authorization. The journal is very briefs about the topic but all the salient points are well discussed. It gives a website as the only source but fail to give other reference. It is very pertinent to mention that the journal would have been a great assistant to the realisation of the objectives of this research work if it has been properly referenced but the beauty of this journal is that it serves as basis of understanding of the topic. g) 7 precautions that minimize the Risk of identity theft Jesse Whitehead In this article, Jesse looks at financial costs of identity theft and estimated it to be $50 billion. He further explains that researchers are yet to discover a precaution that is hundred percent guaranties against the risk of identity theft. In final analysis, Jesse recommends the following precautions to reduce the threat of identity theft in our society. One, he recommends that social security number should not be disclosed to anybody unless otherwise require by law. Secondly, it was also suggested that social security number should not be carried all about. Shredding all important documents immediate after use is strongly recommended and more emphasis should be placed on e- statements from our banks and credit issuers. It was also suggested that a strong password and pin should be created and printing of Driver licence number on our checks should be highly discouraged. The author gives this website as the source of article http://EzinArticle.com/?expert=jessewhitehead but no other reference available. It is very relevant to this project as important aspect of the topic is being discussed. 2.1 DEFINITION OF INTERNET According to Paul et al, â€Å"internet refers to the physical network that links computers across the globe†. From this definition, the interconnectivity of many computer devices all over the globe is done through the world-wide computer network known as internet. These computer devices store and transmit information like World Wide Web and electronic mail (e-mail) messages. There are other devices like mobile computer, pagers, web TVs that are connected to the internet. All these devices are revered to as host or end system. Both electronic mail and world -wide web are network application programs that run on host or end system. Like other internet units, end system run protocols that regulate the sending and receiving of information in the internet domain. Internet has two major protocols popularly called TCP (Transmission control protocol) and IP (internet protocol). Communication links like coaxial cable, copper wire, fibber optics or radio spectrum link end systems together. Data transmission rate of all these links are not the same. This transmission rate is known as bandwidth and is measure in bit or second. End systems are indirectly join to one and other vial routers and a router receives information from the incoming communication links and send it to its outgoing communication links. The IP defines the format of receiving and sending information between the routers and end systems. The path on which information is transmitted is called route or path. The internet then utilises packet switching which gives room for multiple communicating end systems to share a path of a path simultaneously. Connection of network to the internet needs to follow specific name and address and it must be run on the IP protocol. The arrangement of interconnection of the internet is from bottom to top. End systems is connected to local internet service providers by means of access network and this access network is refers to as local area network (LAW) or phone based access network. The local internet service providers are then connected to regional internet service providers. The regional internet providers will also connected to national and international internet service providers. This type of internet is called public internet. There are other private networks that cannot be accessed by public. It can only be accessed within the organisations and refer to as intranet. It also makes use of the same internet technology that public internet is using. Another way of defining Internet is to look at its infrastructural that offers services to distributed application. Internet provides opportunity to distribute application on its end systems to share data with each other. The application could be inform of e-mail, file transfer, remote login, and world-wide web and so on. Web can be ran over network apart from the internet but this does not suggest that web is a separate network, instead it is one of the distribute applications that make use of services offer by the internet. Both connection-oriented services and connectionless services are two services offer by internet to the distributed application. 2.2 GROWTH OF INTERNET Internet and computer networks began early 1960s. During this period, telephone was commonly employed as means of communication. This telephone network utilises circuit switching to transmit information from a sender to receiver and since then, internet continue to grow from strength to strength. There are a number of factors that contributing to this development. Financial analysts observe that costs, competition, demographic issues and customer service are the major considerations that make bankers to constantly review their internet bank strategies. It is the belief of these analysts that demand for internet banking products and services will continue to increase. But the major task facing banks now is how to ensure that the benefits of internet banking outweigh its costs and the risks. The strategies adopted by each bank to increase its market share and cost reduction vary from one bank to another. Internet is a platform through which customers access accounts and general informa tion. It gives customers information about various products and services offer by the bank. 2.3 RISKS OF INTERNET SERVICE There are a number of internet threats around business world today. The threat continue to increase as internet become more acceptable means of conducting online business transactions. As banks so heavily rely on internet to reduce costs, so also they become more prone to some risks. Few examples of these risks are as followings: a) Hacking Hacking involves attempting to gain unauthorised access to a computer system, usually across a network. Hackers only need limited programming knowledge to wreak large amount of havoc. The fact that billions of bits of information can be transmitted in bulk over the public telephone network has made it difficult to trace hackers, who can make repeated attempts to invade bank system. For instant, much damage could be done if people gain authorised access to banks network service. Hacker may gain access to banks internal network for two major reasons. It could be for monetary benefit which usually associated with identity theft where personal information as well as credit card details is obtained to perpetrate fraud. It could also come inform of malicious intent ranging from deletion of file, deliberate introduction of computer viruses into a system or forwarding vital organisations information to rival. Counter measure like dial-back security can be used to prevent this problem. It ope rates by requiring the customer wanting access to the network to dial into it identity themselves first. The system then dials the customer back on their authorised number before allowing them access. Also, system can have firewall to prevent unauthorised access into bank system. Firewall software is use to monitor and control all incoming and outgoing traffic to deny intruders gaining access to the information system. b) Malicious Code Malicious code like worms, Trojan horse program and viruses are written to penetrate a system in order to have access to confidential information or disrupting the bank network. Through the help of the code, Fraudster can enter the network of a bank without its knowledge and valuable information can be stolen in the process. This stolen information can be used to commit identity theft or fraud. This code attacks are very delicate in that they can replicate and spread themselves without human intervention. c) Intrusion This is a process through which an intruder has access to bank network. Usually, the intruders are employees of the bank who have gained access to the authentication information of a bank customer. Intruder could also be an external person who has acquires some skills to get the authentication information of the bank customer. When internal or external intruders have unauthorised access to bank network, vital information about customers can be obtained and later use to perpetrate frauds or commit crimes. To guard against this ugly incident, bank must restrict its employees to some areas of its network. d) Denial of services Banks nowadays rely on internet for effective communication within and outside organisations. In the process of communication, the bank is subjected to the risk of denial of services. Communication channels of the bank can be blocked, web page may be changed or the system employ to process online business transaction may be attacked. A denial of service attack is associated with an attempt by attacker to prevent legitimate users of a service from using that service. The situation forces the bank to close down services until everything return to normal. This kind of criminal activity was hardly experience until 1999 when the crime became cankerworms in our business environments. The effect of this criminal activity is very great most especially when bank so heavily depend on the internet for online business transactions. Huge amount of money could be lost to the fraudster through the attack. Attack on Amazon and Yahoo servers in the year 2000 was a good example. The servers of Yahoo w as engulfed with series of attacks and â€Å"The attack was estimated as costing  £ 300,000 in the lost advertising revenue alone† (Financial Time of November 17, 2000). Another popular of denial of service attack was witnessed in 2004. During this time, a group of fraudsters from Russian embarked on a number of denials of service attack on UK bookmaker. The attackers demanded for certain amount of money before they could stop the attack, but the organisation in question (bookmaker) was not ready to give them any money at that time leading to a great losses of about forty million pound. The effect was very terrible on financial position of the company that very year. e) Brand Abuse It involves sale of counterfeit goods like software application to exploit a well recognised brand name for commercial benefit. Fraudster can imbedded the name of reputable organisation into a bogus web page just to portrait the page as high rank one. People that search for this reputable organisation can be routed to the false web page where the counterfeit goods are sold. A lot of people have intention of buying genuine products and services but end up in buying counterfeit one through the brand abuse. The effect of this is that people pay high price for less quality goods and services. The brand abuse practice costs most UK organisations huge amount of money and cost continue to increase year in year out. People also are no longer sure that the goods and services buy over web pages are actually genuine one. Many people have been victims of counterfeit unknowingly but thinking that they have bought the original goods and services they intend to buy even at exorbitant price. f) Credit Card Fraud The use of credit card online has become a global phenomenal. This card is being use all over the world to make payment for goods or services purchase on internet, retail shops or restaurants. The proliferation use of credit card online makes the users expose to various forms of risks. The risk could be in form of using peoples personal information to open new accounts, hijacking existing accounts. g) Opening of new account After important details like name, date of birth, social security number is obtained, the fraudster can pretend to be another person in order to create new lines of credits. The victims name can be used to secure credit cards and it may not be known to victim that someone has taken credit card on his or her name. Some people in many cases get to know when they receive calls from debt collectors or when they apply for loan and it is not granted due to bad credit rating. Many people have been forced to pay debt they didnt actually own through this process. h) Hijacking account Hijacking existing account is another method use to commit credit card fraud. Existing account can be hijacked by altering important details of the victims such as personal identification number, passwords, billing or mailing address. The purpose of this is to take perfect control of someones account illegally. The original owner of the account may find it hard to regain the control of the account. Even if they regain the control, fraudsters might have wreck serious havoc on financial reputation of the original owner of the account. It takes victims some time and money before they could clear their names from this mess. i) Skimming It is very common in the restaurants, stores or automated Teller machine. Skimming is done through the use of palm-sized card -reading devices. This device is capable of swiping credit card information. It is very delicate in that it may not be noticed until the victims witness unsolicited charges on the statement account of their credit cards. Many of these devices can be planted into Automated Teller machine slots or strategic locations that are not visible to the people. The aim and objective of doing this is to illegally capture important details of targeted victims. The details collected through this method can be used to perpetrate frauds on customers accounts or use to commit crime in the name of the victims. j) Phishing Phishing is another method that thieves use to lure people to supply their personal information through false e-mail and web sites. Customers may receive bogus electronic mail through a web site telling them to update their details. The web site may look like that of normal bank they use to visit. But when they access this web site, their account numbers and passwords will be demanded for. Both password and account number are collected through this method and later use to siphon money from customers accounts or credit cards. Barclays Bank and some highly reputable organisations were a victim of the crime in 2003.This method of stealing is hardly to detect because the e-mail and web site are made so similar to that of original banks. The only preventive measure is for the banks to educate their customers to ignore such e-mail whenever they receive it. Although this will not totally wipe out the crime because many online customers will still respond to such e-mail but additional measur e like authentication which involves adding an extra field to a record with the contents of this field derived from the remainder of the record by applying an algorithm that has previously been agreed between the bank and customers will go a long way in countering this crime. Multiple passwords can also be employed to counter the problem. Furthermore, there are many more of internet threats around but this research work will focus majorly on identity theft and card authorisation. 2.4 IDENTITY THEFT According to available information, identity theft and identity fraud are not new crimes. Both have been in existent for a while and continue to be among the fastest growing crimes in the UK. These two crimes can be perpetrated without a thief even burgling into your home or have physical contact with your computer system. The problem is likely to get even worse because of economy recession that grips all the nations. Information gathered from banks reveal that insurance fraud is increase by 17% and identity fraud seems to be following the same pattern. If bank customer identity is compromised he or she may find it hard to have good access to a loan, credit card or mortgage until everything is resolved. We are all victims of these crimes. We eventually pay highest prices in shops, highest interest rate on mortgages and higher premium on our insurance policies for no other reasons than this problem of fraud. Government and corporate individual organisations have been making frantic efforts to reduce these crimes. But in spite of all these efforts, the rate of identity theft and identity fraud are yet to reduce and number of victims of these crimes are also increasing on alarming rate. According to (UK payments, the UK trade association for payments, 2008) card fraud losses total  £609.9m, online banking fraud losses  £52.5m and cheque fraud losses  £41.9m. Furthermore, of identity fraud in 2007 was quoted to be 65,043 according to CIFAS, the UKs fraud prevention service. The 2003 survey of Federal Trade Commission (FTC) indicated that about 3.25 million Americans had lodged complaints that their personal detail was illegitimately used to get credit cards, obtain loans, rent apartment, and enjoy medical facility and some time use to commit crimes. Also, more than 5 million Americans were victims of credit card frauds where personal detail was used to obtain lines of credit and twent y five million plus have been victim of identity theft. WHAT ARE IDENTITY THEFT AND IDENTITY FRAUD THEN? Identity Theft is situation where by an individuals personal information or confidential detail is steal by another person without their knowledge. But Identity fraud is committed when thieves use this information to secure credit, goods or other services in the name of targeted victim without his or her knowledge. Another definition describe identity theft as â€Å"anyone who knowingly transfers or uses, without lawful authority, any name or number that may be used, alone or in conjunction with any other information, to identify a specific individual with the intent to commit or aid or abet, any unlawful activity that constitutes a violation of federal law, or that constitutes a felony under any applicable state or local law† (1998 identity Theft Act, U.S public Law 105-318). 2.5 REASON FOR IDENTITY THEFT FRAUD Reports so far on various form of identity thefts indicated that fraudsters commit identity theft for a number of reasons. But the most common one are: a) Concealment Many people commit identity theft simply because they want to cover their past criminal records. Some people in the past have committed one crime or the other and want to cover them to avoid arrest. A very good example of this scenario was that of September eleven terrorist. â€Å"All 19 of the September 11th terrorist were involved in identity theft in some way† (Willox and Regan 2002) many people were wrongly arrested because their identities have been stolen. Also, a number of people commit identity theft because they want to hide their bad financial records which denied them access to essential banks products or services such as bank loans, mortgage, account opening or credit card. In some situations, identity theft can be committed to avoid payment of existing debts. These type of people may want to enjoy normal life again and the only way they can achieve this is to masquerade themselves under the identity of another person. The effects of these criminal activities are t hat warrant arrest and prosecution may be issued in the name of victim customer. b) Financial benefit Investigation conducted from various banks indicated that many fraud cases reported in the recent past revealed that people committing identity theft for financial gain. In some cases, thieves steal personal information of innocent persons to open a line of credit cards accounts. Along the line many goods and services can be purchased in the name of targeted victims. In the same manner, details of another person can be used to secure loan from bank and account abandon later after fraudsters might have make a lot of money from the accounts of victims. A friend narrated his experience where fraudster obtained his personal details to secure a loan of about  £10.000 from a commercial bank without his knowledge. The fraud discovered some months later when he received a letter from the bank that sum of  £10.000 plus accrued interest is due for payment in his account. The fraudsters have used his identity to have illegitimate financial gain. The case took him some legal battles and time before he could exonerate himself from this mess. c) Revenge Many banks have witnessed identity theft through the activities of their employees. Some employees of bank may collude with fraudsters to steal details of customers as retaliation to the termination of their appointments or the bad treatments they received from their employers. In this process, valuable banks information may be sold to competitors leading the bank to various litigations and financial lost. Also the reputation of the bank may be seriously damaged. The effect of this is decline in profits and low patronage of the customers. 2.6 TYPE OF IDENTITY THEFT Many Bank customers have been victims of identity theft by one way or the other and type of identity will largely depend on the definition giving to it. But the most prominent one is credit card. Information available reveals that credit card fraud on internet has been seriously increase due to the opportunity offered by new improved internet technology. Apart from credit card fraud, there are other types of identity theft such as extortion, phishing, financial scam, avoiding arrest, organized identity theft and many others. a) Extortion Fraudsters have many ways of extorting money from banks and customers but the two common one are cyber squatting and the threat of leaking customers information. Cyber- squatting, this method of extortion related to registering a bogus internet domain to